'\" et
.TH WAIT "3P" 2013 "IEEE/The Open Group" "POSIX Programmer's Manual"
.SH PROLOG
This manual page is part of the POSIX Programmer's Manual.
The Linux implementation of this interface may differ (consult
the corresponding Linux manual page for details of Linux behavior),
or the interface may not be implemented on Linux.

.SH NAME
wait,
waitpid
\(em wait for a child process to stop or terminate
.SH SYNOPSIS
.LP
.nf
#include <sys/wait.h>
.P
pid_t wait(int *\fIstat_loc\fP);
pid_t waitpid(pid_t \fIpid\fP, int *\fIstat_loc\fP, int \fIoptions\fP);
.fi
.SH DESCRIPTION
The
\fIwait\fR()
and
\fIwaitpid\fR()
functions shall obtain status information pertaining to one of the
caller's child processes. Various options permit status information to
be obtained for child processes that have terminated or stopped. If
status information is available for two or more child processes, the
order in which their status is reported is unspecified.
.P
The
\fIwait\fR()
function shall suspend execution of the calling thread until status
information for one of the terminated child processes of the calling
process is available, or until delivery of a signal whose action is
either to execute a signal-catching function or to terminate the
process. If more than one thread is suspended in
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
awaiting termination of the same process, exactly one thread shall
return the process status at the time of the target process
termination. If status information is available prior to the call to
\fIwait\fR(),
return shall be immediate.
.P
The
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function shall be equivalent to
\fIwait\fR()
if the
.IR pid
argument is (\fBpid_t\fP)\(mi1 and the
.IR options
argument is 0. Otherwise, its behavior shall be modified by the values
of the
.IR pid
and
.IR options
arguments.
.P
The
.IR pid
argument specifies a set of child processes for which
.IR status
is requested. The
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function shall only return the status of a child process from this set:
.IP " *" 4
If
.IR pid
is equal to (\fBpid_t\fP)\(mi1,
.IR status
is requested for any child process. In this respect,
\fIwaitpid\fR()
is then equivalent to
\fIwait\fR().
.IP " *" 4
If
.IR pid
is greater than 0, it specifies the process ID of a single child
process for which
.IR status
is requested.
.IP " *" 4
If
.IR pid
is 0,
.IR status
is requested for any child process whose process group ID is equal to
that of the calling process.
.IP " *" 4
If
.IR pid
is less than (\fBpid_t\fP)\(mi1,
.IR status
is requested for any child process whose process group ID is equal to
the absolute value of
.IR pid .
.P
The
.IR options
argument is constructed from the bitwise-inclusive OR of zero or more
of the following flags, defined in the
.IR <sys/wait.h> 
header:
.IP WCONTINUED 12
The
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function shall report the status of any continued child process
specified by
.IR pid
whose status has not been reported since it continued from a job
control stop.
.IP WNOHANG 12
The
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function shall not suspend execution of the calling thread if
.IR status
is not immediately available for one of the child processes specified
by
.IR pid .
.IP WUNTRACED 12
The status of any child processes specified by
.IR pid
that are stopped, and whose status has not yet been reported since they
stopped, shall also be reported to the requesting process.
.P
If the calling process has SA_NOCLDWAIT set or has SIGCHLD set to
SIG_IGN,
and the process has no unwaited-for children that were transformed into
zombie processes, the calling thread shall block until all of the
children of the process containing the calling thread terminate, and
\fIwait\fR()
and
\fIwaitpid\fR()
shall fail and set
.IR errno
to
.BR [ECHILD] .
.P
If
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
return because the status of a child process is available, these
functions shall return a value equal to the process ID of the child
process. In this case, if the value of the argument
.IR stat_loc
is not a null pointer, information shall be stored in the location
pointed to by
.IR stat_loc .
The value stored at the location pointed to by
.IR stat_loc
shall be 0 if and only if the status returned is from a terminated
child process that terminated by one of the following means:
.IP " 1." 4
The process returned 0 from
\fImain\fR().
.IP " 2." 4
The process called
\fI_exit\fR()
or
\fIexit\fR()
with a
.IR status
argument of 0.
.IP " 3." 4
The process was terminated because the last thread in the process
terminated.
.P
Regardless of its value, this information may be
interpreted using the following macros, which are defined in
.IR <sys/wait.h> 
and evaluate to integral expressions; the
.IR stat_val
argument is the integer value pointed to by
.IR stat_loc .
.IP "WIFEXITED(\fIstat_val\fP)" 6
.br
Evaluates to a non-zero value if
.IR status
was returned for a child process that terminated normally.
.IP "WEXITSTATUS(\fIstat_val\fP)" 6
.br
If the value of WIFEXITED(\fIstat_val\fP) is non-zero, this macro
evaluates to the low-order 8 bits of the
.IR status
argument that the child process passed to
\fI_exit\fR()
or
\fIexit\fR(),
or the value the child process returned from
\fImain\fR().
.IP "WIFSIGNALED(\fIstat_val\fP)" 6
.br
Evaluates to a non-zero value if
.IR status
was returned for a child process that terminated due to the receipt of
a signal that was not caught (see
.IR <signal.h> ).
.IP "WTERMSIG(\fIstat_val\fP)" 6
.br
If the value of WIFSIGNALED(\fIstat_val\fP) is non-zero, this macro
evaluates to the number of the signal that caused the termination of
the child process.
.IP "WIFSTOPPED(\fIstat_val\fP)" 6
.br
Evaluates to a non-zero value if
.IR status
was returned for a child process that is currently stopped.
.IP "WSTOPSIG(\fIstat_val\fP)" 6
.br
If the value of WIFSTOPPED(\fIstat_val\fP) is non-zero, this macro
evaluates to the number of the signal that caused the child process to
stop.
.IP "WIFCONTINUED(\fIstat_val\fP)" 6
.br
Evaluates to a non-zero value if
.IR status
was returned for a child process that has continued from a job control
stop.
.P
It is unspecified whether the
.IR status
value returned by calls to
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
for processes created by
\fIposix_spawn\fR()
or
\fIposix_spawnp\fR()
can indicate a WIFSTOPPED(\fIstat_val\fP) before subsequent calls to
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
indicate WIFEXITED(\fIstat_val\fP) as the result of an error detected
before the new process image starts executing.
.P
It is unspecified whether the
.IR status
value returned by calls to
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
for processes created by
\fIposix_spawn\fR()
or
\fIposix_spawnp\fR()
can indicate a WIFSIGNALED(\fIstat_val\fP) if a signal is sent to the
parent's process group after
\fIposix_spawn\fR()
or
\fIposix_spawnp\fR()
is called.
.P
If the information pointed to by
.IR stat_loc
was stored by a call to
\fIwaitpid\fR()
that specified the WUNTRACED flag
and did not specify the WCONTINUED flag,
exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*\fIstat_loc\fR),
WIFSIGNALED(*\fIstat_loc\fR), and WIFSTOPPED(*\fIstat_loc\fR)
shall evaluate to a non-zero value.
.P
If the information pointed to by
.IR stat_loc
was stored by a call to
\fIwaitpid\fR()
that specified the WUNTRACED
and WCONTINUED
flags, exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*\fIstat_loc\fR),
WIFSIGNALED(*\fIstat_loc\fR), WIFSTOPPED(*\fIstat_loc\fR),
and WIFCONTINUED(*\fIstat_loc\fR)
shall evaluate to a non-zero value.
.P
If the information pointed to by
.IR stat_loc
was stored by a call to
\fIwaitpid\fR()
that did not specify the WUNTRACED
or WCONTINUED
flags, or by a call to the
\fIwait\fR()
function, exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*\fIstat_loc\fR) and
WIFSIGNALED(*\fIstat_loc\fR) shall evaluate to a non-zero value.
.P
If the information pointed to by
.IR stat_loc
was stored by a call to
\fIwaitpid\fR()
that did not specify the WUNTRACED flag
and specified the WCONTINUED flag,
or by a call to the
\fIwait\fR()
function, exactly one of the macros WIFEXITED(*\fIstat_loc\fR),
WIFSIGNALED(*\fIstat_loc\fR),
and WIFCONTINUED(*\fIstat_loc\fR)
shall evaluate to a non-zero value.
.P
If _POSIX_REALTIME_SIGNALS is defined, and the implementation queues
the SIGCHLD signal, then if
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
returns because the status of a child process is available, any pending
SIGCHLD signal associated with the process ID of the child process
shall be discarded. Any other pending SIGCHLD signals shall remain
pending.
.P
Otherwise, if SIGCHLD is blocked, if
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
return because the status of a child process is available, any pending
SIGCHLD signal shall be cleared unless the status of another child
process is available.
.P
For all other conditions, it is unspecified whether child
.IR status
will be available when a SIGCHLD signal is delivered.
.P
There may be additional implementation-defined circumstances under
which
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
report
.IR status .
This shall not occur unless the calling process or one of its child
processes explicitly makes use of a non-standard extension. In these
cases the interpretation of the reported
.IR status
is implementation-defined.
.P
If a parent process terminates without waiting for all of its child
processes to terminate, the remaining child processes shall be assigned
a new parent process ID corresponding to an implementation-defined
system process.
.SH "RETURN VALUE"
If
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
returns because the status of a child process is available, these
functions shall return a value equal to the process ID of the child
process for which
.IR status
is reported. If
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
returns due to the delivery of a signal to the calling process, \(mi1
shall be returned and
.IR errno
set to
.BR [EINTR] .
If
\fIwaitpid\fR()
was invoked with WNOHANG set in
.IR options ,
it has at least one child process specified by
.IR pid
for which
.IR status
is not available, and
.IR status
is not available for any process specified by
.IR pid ,
0 is returned. Otherwise, \(mi1 shall be returned, and
.IR errno
set to indicate the error.
.SH ERRORS
The
\fIwait\fR()
function shall fail if:
.TP
.BR ECHILD
The calling process has no existing unwaited-for child processes.
.TP
.BR EINTR
The function was interrupted by a signal. The value of the location
pointed to by
.IR stat_loc
is undefined.
.P
The
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function shall fail if:
.TP
.BR ECHILD
The process specified by
.IR pid
does not exist or is not a child of the calling process, or the process
group specified by
.IR pid
does not exist or does not have any member process that is a child of
the calling process.
.TP
.BR EINTR
The function was interrupted by a signal. The value of the location
pointed to by
.IR stat_loc
is undefined.
.TP
.BR EINVAL
The
.IR options
argument is not valid.
.LP
.IR "The following sections are informative."
.SH EXAMPLES
.SS "Waiting for a Child Process and then Checking its Status"
.P
The following example demonstrates the use of
\fIwaitpid\fR(),
\fIfork\fR(),
and the macros used to interpret the status value returned by
\fIwaitpid\fR()
(and
\fIwait\fR()).
The code segment creates a child process which does some unspecified
work. Meanwhile the parent loops performing calls to
\fIwaitpid\fR()
to monitor the status of the child. The loop terminates when child
termination is detected.
.sp
.RS 4
.nf
\fB
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/wait.h>
\&...
.P
pid_t child_pid, wpid;
int status;
.P
child_pid = fork();
if (child_pid == \(mi1) {      /* fork() failed */
    perror("fork");
    exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
.P
if (child_pid == 0) {       /* This is the child */
    /* Child does some work and then terminates */
    ...
.P
} else {                    /* This is the parent */
    do {
        wpid = waitpid(child_pid, &status, WUNTRACED
#ifdef WCONTINUED       /* Not all implementations support this */
        | WCONTINUED
#endif
        );
        if (wpid == \(mi1) {
            perror("waitpid");
            exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
        }
.P
        if (WIFEXITED(status)) {
            printf("child exited, status=%d\en", WEXITSTATUS(status));
.P
        } else if (WIFSIGNALED(status)) {
            printf("child killed (signal %d)\en", WTERMSIG(status));
.P
        } else if (WIFSTOPPED(status)) {
            printf("child stopped (signal %d)\en", WSTOPSIG(status));
.P
#ifdef WIFCONTINUED     /* Not all implementations support this */
        } else if (WIFCONTINUED(status)) {
            printf("child continued\en");
#endif
        } else {    /* Non-standard case -- may never happen */
            printf("Unexpected status (0x%x)\en", status);
        }
    } while (!WIFEXITED(status) && !WIFSIGNALED(status));
}
.fi \fR
.P
.RE
.SS "Waiting for a Child Process in a Signal Handler for SIGCHLD"
.P
The following example demonstrates how to use
\fIwaitpid\fR()
in a signal handler for SIGCHLD without passing \(mi1 as the
.IR pid
argument. (See the APPLICATION USAGE section below for the reasons
why passing a
.IR pid
of \(mi1 is not recommended.) The method used here relies on the
standard behavior of
\fIwaitpid\fR()
when SIGCHLD is blocked. On historical non-conforming systems, the
status of some child processes might not be reported.
.sp
.RS 4
.nf
\fB
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <signal.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/wait.h>
#include <unistd.h>
.P
#define CHILDREN 10
.P
static void
handle_sigchld(int signum, siginfo_t *sinfo, void *unused)
{
    int sav_errno = errno;
    int status;
.P
    /*
     * Obtain status information for the child which
     * caused the SIGCHLD signal and write its exit code
     * to stdout.
    */
    if (sinfo->si_code != CLD_EXITED)
    {
        static char msg[] = "wrong si_code\en";
        write(2, msg, sizeof msg \(mi 1);
    }
    else if (waitpid(sinfo->si_pid, &status, 0) =\|= \(mi1)
    {
        static char msg[] = "waitpid() failed\en";
        write(2, msg, sizeof msg \(mi 1);
    }
    else if (!WIFEXITED(status))
    {
        static char msg[] = "WIFEXITED was false\en";
        write(2, msg, sizeof msg \(mi 1);
    }
    else
    {
        int code = WEXITSTATUS(status);
        char buf[2];
        buf[0] = '0' + code;
        buf[1] = '\en';
        write(1, buf, 2);
    }
    errno = sav_errno;
}
.P
int
main(void)
{
    int i;
    pid_t pid;
    struct sigaction sa;
.P
    sa.sa_flags = SA_SIGINFO;
    sa.sa_sigaction = handle_sigchld;
    sigemptyset(&sa.sa_mask);
    if (sigaction(SIGCHLD, &sa, NULL) =\|= \(mi1)
    {
        perror("sigaction");
        exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
    }
.P
    for (i = 0; i < CHILDREN; i++)
    {
        switch (pid = fork())
        {
        case \(mi1:
            perror("fork");
            exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
        case 0:
            sleep(2);
            _exit(i);
        }
    }
.P
    /* Wait for all the SIGCHLD signals, then terminate on SIGALRM */
    alarm(3);
    for (;;)
        pause();
.P
    return 0; /* NOTREACHED */
}
.fi \fR
.P
.RE
.SH "APPLICATION USAGE"
Calls to
\fIwait\fR()
will collect information about any child process. This may result in
interactions with other interfaces that may be waiting for their own
children (such as by use of
\fIsystem\fR()).
For this and other reasons it is recommended that portable applications
not use
\fIwait\fR(),
but instead use
\fIwaitpid\fR().
For these same reasons, the use of
\fIwaitpid\fR()
with a
.IR pid
argument of \(mi1, and the use of
\fIwaitid\fR()
with the
.IR idtype
argument set to P_ALL, are also not recommended for portable applications.
.SH RATIONALE
A call to the
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function only returns
.IR status
on an immediate child process of the calling process; that is, a child
that was produced by a single
\fIfork\fR()
call (perhaps followed by an
.IR exec
or other function calls) from the parent. If a child produces
grandchildren by further use of
\fIfork\fR(),
none of those grandchildren nor any of their descendants affect the
behavior of a
\fIwait\fR()
from the original parent process. Nothing in this volume of POSIX.1\(hy2008 prevents an
implementation from providing extensions that permit a process to get
.IR status
from a grandchild or any other process, but a process that does not use
such extensions must be guaranteed to see
.IR status
from only its direct children.
.P
The
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function is provided for three reasons:
.IP " 1." 4
To support job control
.IP " 2." 4
To permit a non-blocking version of the
\fIwait\fR()
function
.IP " 3." 4
To permit a library routine, such as
\fIsystem\fR()
or
\fIpclose\fR(),
to wait for its children without interfering with other terminated
children for which the process has not waited
.P
The first two of these facilities are based on the
.IR wait3 (\|)
function provided by 4.3 BSD. The function uses the
.IR options
argument, which is equivalent to an argument to
.IR wait3 (\|).
The WUNTRACED
flag is used only in conjunction with job control on systems supporting
job control. Its name comes from 4.3 BSD
and refers to the fact that there are two types of stopped processes in
that implementation: processes being traced via the
\fIptrace\fR()
debugging facility and (untraced) processes stopped by job control
signals. Since
\fIptrace\fR()
is not part of this volume of POSIX.1\(hy2008, only the second type is relevant. The name
WUNTRACED was retained because its usage is the same, even though the
name is not intuitively meaningful in this context.
.P
The third reason for the
\fIwaitpid\fR()
function is to permit independent sections of a process to spawn and
wait for children without interfering with each other. For example,
the following problem occurs in developing a portable shell, or command
interpreter:
.sp
.RS 4
.nf
\fB
stream = popen("/bin/true");
(void) system("sleep 100");
(void) pclose(stream);
.fi \fR
.P
.RE
.P
On all historical implementations, the final
\fIpclose\fR()
fails to reap the
\fIwait\fR()
.IR status
of the
\fIpopen\fR().
.P
The status values are retrieved by macros, rather than given as
specific bit encodings as they are in most historical implementations
(and thus expected by existing programs). This was necessary to
eliminate a limitation on the number of signals an implementation can
support that was inherent in the traditional encodings. This volume of POSIX.1\(hy2008
does require that a
.IR status
value of zero corresponds to a process calling
.IR _exit (0),
as this is the most common encoding expected by existing programs.
Some of the macro names were adopted from 4.3 BSD.
.P
These macros syntactically operate on an arbitrary integer value. The
behavior is undefined unless that value is one stored by a successful
call to
\fIwait\fR()
or
\fIwaitpid\fR()
in the location pointed to by the
.IR stat_loc
argument. An early proposal attempted to make this clearer by specifying
each argument as *\fIstat_loc\fP rather than
.IR stat_val .
However, that did not follow the conventions of other specifications in
\&this volume of POSIX.1\(hy2008 or traditional usage. It also could have implied that the
argument to the macro must literally be *\fIstat_loc\fP; in fact, that
value can be stored or passed as an argument to other functions before
being interpreted by these macros.
.P
The extension that affects
\fIwait\fR()
and
\fIwaitpid\fR()
and is common in historical implementations is the
\fIptrace\fR()
function. It is called by a child process and causes that child to
stop and return a
.IR status
that appears identical to the
.IR status
indicated by WIFSTOPPED.
The
.IR status
of
\fIptrace\fR()
children is traditionally returned regardless of the WUNTRACED
flag (or by the
\fIwait\fR()
function). Most applications do not need to concern themselves with
such extensions because they have control over what extensions they or
their children use. However, applications, such as command
interpreters, that invoke arbitrary processes may see this behavior
when those arbitrary processes misuse such extensions.
.P
Implementations that support
.BR core
file creation or other implementation-defined actions on termination
of some processes traditionally provide a bit in the
.IR status
returned by
\fIwait\fR()
to indicate that such actions have occurred.
.P
Allowing the
\fIwait\fR()
family of functions to discard a pending SIGCHLD signal that is
associated with a successfully waited-for child process puts them into
the
\fIsigwait\fR()
and
\fIsigwaitinfo\fR()
category with respect to SIGCHLD.
.P
This definition allows implementations to treat a pending SIGCHLD
signal as accepted by the process in
\fIwait\fR(),
with the same meaning of ``accepted'' as when that word is applied to
the
\fIsigwait\fR()
family of functions.
.P
Allowing the
\fIwait\fR()
family of functions to behave this way permits an implementation to be
able to deal precisely with SIGCHLD signals.
.P
In particular, an implementation that does accept (discard) the SIGCHLD
signal can make the following guarantees regardless of the queuing
depth of signals in general (the list of waitable children can hold the
SIGCHLD queue):
.IP " 1." 4
If a SIGCHLD signal handler is established via
\fIsigaction\fR()
without the SA_RESETHAND flag, SIGCHLD signals can be accurately
counted; that is, exactly one SIGCHLD signal will be delivered to or
accepted by the process for every child process that terminates.
.IP " 2." 4
A single
\fIwait\fR()
issued from a SIGCHLD signal handler can be guaranteed to return
immediately with status information for a child process.
.IP " 3." 4
When SA_SIGINFO is requested, the SIGCHLD signal handler can be
guaranteed to receive a non-null pointer to a
.BR siginfo_t
structure that describes a child process for which a wait via
\fIwaitpid\fR()
or
\fIwaitid\fR()
will not block or fail.
.IP " 4." 4
The
\fIsystem\fR()
function will not cause the SIGCHLD handler of a process to be
called as a result of the
\fIfork\fR()/\c
.IR exec
executed within
\fIsystem\fR()
because
\fIsystem\fR()
will accept the SIGCHLD signal when it performs a
\fIwaitpid\fR()
for its child process. This is a desirable behavior of
\fIsystem\fR()
so that it can be used in a library without causing side-effects to the
application linked with the library.
.P
An implementation that does not permit the
\fIwait\fR()
family of functions to accept (discard) a pending SIGCHLD signal
associated with a successfully waited-for child, cannot make the
guarantees described above for the following reasons:
.IP "Guarantee #1" 6
.br
Although it might be assumed that reliable queuing of all SIGCHLD
signals generated by the system can make this guarantee, the
counter-example is the case of a process that blocks SIGCHLD and
performs an indefinite loop of
\fIfork\fR()/\c
\fIwait\fR()
operations. If the implementation supports queued signals, then
eventually the system will run out of memory for the queue. The
guarantee cannot be made because there must be some limit to the depth
of queuing.
.IP "Guarantees #2 and #3" 6
.br
These cannot be guaranteed unless the
\fIwait\fR()
family of functions accepts the SIGCHLD signal. Otherwise, a
\fIfork\fR()/\c
\fIwait\fR()
executed while SIGCHLD is blocked (as in the
\fIsystem\fR()
function) will result in an invocation of the handler when SIGCHLD is
unblocked, after the process has disappeared.
.IP "Guarantee #4" 6
.br
Although possible to make this guarantee,
\fIsystem\fR()
would have to set the SIGCHLD handler to SIG_DFL so that the SIGCHLD
signal generated by its
\fIfork\fR()
would be discarded (the SIGCHLD default action is to be ignored), then
restore it to its previous setting. This would have the undesirable
side-effect of discarding all SIGCHLD signals pending to the process.
.SH "FUTURE DIRECTIONS"
None.
.SH "SEE ALSO"
.IR "\fIexec\fR\^",
.IR "\fIexit\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIfork\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIsystem\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIwaitid\fR\^(\|)"
.P
The Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1\(hy2008,
.IR "Section 4.11" ", " "Memory Synchronization",
.IR "\fB<signal.h>\fP",
.IR "\fB<sys_wait.h>\fP"
.SH COPYRIGHT
Portions of this text are reprinted and reproduced in electronic form
from IEEE Std 1003.1, 2013 Edition, Standard for Information Technology
-- Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX), The Open Group Base
Specifications Issue 7, Copyright (C) 2013 by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc and The Open Group.
(This is POSIX.1-2008 with the 2013 Technical Corrigendum 1 applied.) In the
event of any discrepancy between this version and the original IEEE and
The Open Group Standard, the original IEEE and The Open Group Standard
is the referee document. The original Standard can be obtained online at
http://www.unix.org/online.html .

Any typographical or formatting errors that appear
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to have been introduced during the conversion of the source files to
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https://www.kernel.org/doc/man-pages/reporting_bugs.html .